ENVISAGING GLOOMY FUTURE

The last of the product life cycle stages is the Decline stage, which as you might expect is often the beginning of the end for a product. When you look at the classic product life cycle curve, the Decline stage is very clearly demonstrated by the fall in both sales and profits. Despite the obvious challenges of this decline, there may still be opportunities for manufacturers to continue making a profit from their product.

Challenges of the Decline Stage

  • Market in Decline: During this final phase of the product life cycle, the market for a product will start to decline. Consumers will typically stop buying this product in favour of something newer and better, and there’s generally not much a manufacturer will be able to do to prevent this.
  • Falling Sales and Profits: As a result of the declining market, sales will start to fall, and the overall profit that is available to the manufacturers in the market will start to decrease. One way for companies to slow this fall in sales and profits is to try and increase their market share which, while challenging enough during the Maturity stage of the cycle, can be even harder when a market is in decline.
  • Product Withdrawal: Ultimately, for a lot of manufacturers it could get to a point where they are no longer making a profit from their product. As there may be no way to reverse this decline, the only option many business will have is to withdraw their product before it starts to lose them money.

Benefits of the Decline Stage

  • Cheaper Production: Even during the Decline stage, there may be opportunities for some companies to continue selling their products at a profit, if they are able to reduce their costs. By looking at alternative manufacturing options, using different techniques, or moving production to another location, a business may be able to extend the profitable life of a product.
  • Cheaper Markets: For some manufacturers, another way to continue making a profit from a product during the Decline stage may be to look to new, cheaper markets for sales. In the past, the profit potential from these markets may not have justified the investment need to enter them, but companies often see things differently when the only other alternative might be to withdraw a product altogether.

 

Product Life Cycle Management

Many products going through the Decline stage of the product life cycle will experience a shrinking market coupled with falling sales and profits. For some companies it will simply be a case of continuing to manufacture a product as long as it is economically viable, but withdrawing it as soon as that’s not the case. However, depending on the particular markets involved, some companies may be able to extend the life of their product and continue making a profit, by looking at alternative means of production and new, cheaper markets. Even in the Decline stage, a product can still be viable, and the most successful manufacturers are those that focus on effective product life cycle management, allowing them to make the most from the potential of each and every product the company launches.

http://productlifecyclestages.com/product-life-cycle-stages/decline/

 

Stage 4 of Product Life Cycle – Stage of decline

1 product, 10 competitors, minimum profits, huge amount of manpower and resources in use – A typical scenario which a product might face in its last stage. In this stage the expenditures begin to equal the profits or worse, expenses are more than profits.

Thus it becomes a typical scenario for the product to exit the market. It also becomes advantageous for the company as the company can use resources it was spending on the declining product on an altogether different project.

Characteristics of Decline stages of Product life cycle

  1. Market is saturated
  2. Sales and profits decline
  3. Company becomes cost conscious
  4. A lot of resources are blocked in rejuvenating the dead product.
  5. There are only three options left with the company:
    • Re positioning or Rebranding of the product to extend product life cycle
    • Maintain the product as it is and reduce costs to get maximum profits till the product can produce profits
    • Take the product off the market.

Summary of the product Life Cycle

Characteristics of the Product life cycle

Stages Decline
1. Sales Declining Sales
2. Costs Low cost per customer
3. Profits Declining Profit
4. Customer Laggards
5. Competitor Declining numbers.

Objectives of Product Life Cycle

Stages Decline
Objectives: Reduce expenses & cut brands

Strategies of Product life Cycle

Stages Decline
1. Product Phase out weak products
2. Price Cut price OR SOLD IN PIECE RATE
3. Distribution Selective phase out of unprofitable unit
 4. Advertising Reduce to retain hard core loyals
5. Sales

Promotion

Reduce to minimum level

 

http://www.marketing91.com/product-life-cycle/




Melihat lingkungan persaingan

  1. lihat pesaing siapa saja
  2. lihat tujuan, strategi, swot, dan reaksi pesaing
  3. pilih pesaing yang akan diserang atau dihindari
  4. strategi memenangkan persaingan bisa berdasarkan biaya, fokus/diferensiasi, layanan terbaik, dekat dengan konsumen (loyal), keunggulan produk/jasa, atau “di tengah jalan” (bingung mau kemana)
  5. posisi persaingan terbagi menjadi pemimpin pasar, penantang pasar, pengikut pasar, atau spesialis
  6. jika pesaing menaikkan harga, pilihannya adalah

1. tetap tidak “latah”, atau

2. ikut menaikkan harga juga, atau

3. meyakinkan produk yang dijual lebih bermutu, atau

4. menaikkan mutu (dengan harga yang lebih tinggi), atau

5. mengeluarkan produk spesial yang bermutu tinggi, atau

6. menjual dengan memisahkan produk utama dan pendukung.




When decline stage comes?

The last of the product life cycle stages is the Decline stage, which as you might expect is often the beginning of the end for a product. When you look at the classic product life cycle curve, the Decline stage is very clearly demonstrated by the fall in both sales and profits. Despite the obvious challenges of this decline, there may still be opportunities for manufacturers to continue making a profit from their product.

Challenges of the Decline Stage

  • Market in Decline: During this final phase of the product life cycle, the market for a product will start to decline. Consumers will typically stop buying this product in favour of something newer and better, and there’s generally not much a manufacturer will be able to do to prevent this.
  • Falling Sales and Profits: As a result of the declining market, sales will start to fall, and the overall profit that is available to the manufacturers in the market will start to decrease. One way for companies to slow this fall in sales and profits is to try and increase their market share which, while challenging enough during the Maturity stage of the cycle, can be even harder when a market is in decline.
  • Product Withdrawal: Ultimately, for a lot of manufacturers it could get to a point where they are no longer making a profit from their product. As there may be no way to reverse this decline, the only option many business will have is to withdraw their product before it starts to lose them money.

Benefits of the Decline Stage

  • Cheaper Production: Even during the Decline stage, there may be opportunities for some companies to continue selling their products at a profit, if they are able to reduce their costs. By looking at alternative manufacturing options, using different techniques, or moving production to another location, a business may be able to extend the profitable life of a product.
  • Cheaper Markets: For some manufacturers, another way to continue making a profit from a product during the Decline stage may be to look to new, cheaper markets for sales. In the past, the profit potential from these markets may not have justified the investment need to enter them, but companies often see things differently when the only other alternative might be to withdraw a product altogether.

 

Product Life Cycle Management

Many products going through the Decline stage of the product life cycle will experience a shrinking market coupled with falling sales and profits. For some companies it will simply be a case of continuing to manufacture a product as long as it is economically viable, but withdrawing it as soon as that’s not the case. However, depending on the particular markets involved, some companies may be able to extend the life of their product and continue making a profit, by looking at alternative means of production and new, cheaper markets. Even in the Decline stage, a product can still be viable, and the most successful manufacturers are those that focus on effective product life cycle management, allowing them to make the most from the potential of each and every product the company launches.

http://productlifecyclestages.com/product-life-cycle-stages/decline/

 

Stage 4 of Product Life Cycle – Stage of decline

1 product, 10 competitors, minimum profits, huge amount of manpower and resources in use – A typical scenario which a product might face in its last stage. In this stage the expenditures begin to equal the profits or worse, expenses are more than profits.

Thus it becomes a typical scenario for the product to exit the market. It also becomes advantageous for the company as the company can use resources it was spending on the declining product on an altogether different project.

Characteristics of Decline stages of Product life cycle

  1. Market is saturated
  2. Sales and profits decline
  3. Company becomes cost conscious
  4. A lot of resources are blocked in rejuvenating the dead product.
  5. There are only three options left with the company:
    • Re positioning or Rebranding of the product to extend product life cycle
    • Maintain the product as it is and reduce costs to get maximum profits till the product can produce profits
    • Take the product off the market.

Summary of the product Life Cycle

Characteristics of the Product life cycle

Stages Decline
1. Sales Declining Sales
2. Costs Low cost per customer
3. Profits Declining Profit
4. Customer Laggards
5. Competitor Declining numbers.

Objectives of Product Life Cycle

Stages Decline
Objectives: Reduce expenses & cut brands

Strategies of Product life Cycle

Stages Decline
1. Product Phase out weak products
2. Price Cut price
3. Distribution Selective phase out of unprofitable unit
 4. Advertising Reduce to retain hard core loyals
5. Sales

Promotion

Reduce to minimum level

 

http://www.marketing91.com/product-life-cycle/

 

 




Brand amabassador

BRAND AMBASSADOR are not a new concept for marketers. Most brands have used one or more types of brand ambassadors in one way or another. What’s different now is the scale of those brand ambassadors with the advent of social media. Through social media, brands have been getting the benefit of positive contributions from their fans and followers without even having a formal brand ambassador program. So, one may ask, why should I have a brand ambassador program? If you don’t have a brand ambassador portal or program in place, you’re missing out on becoming a marketing hero amongst your organization. If you’re building a brand ambassador program, you should consider the following 10 questions.

Key reasons why you need a structured brand ambassador program:

  • Align social results with business goals from influential community leaders and users within your brand’s social community
  • Lunch campaigns and drive product launches quickly with predictable results
  • Develop closer relationship with your brand ambassadors that can be the taste makers for your target customers
  • Get higher quality content from ambassadors for your campaigns with permission to use in your marketing
  • Ask ambassadors to perform specific tasks such as upload content or share a message and connect those tasks with your business process
  • Measure effectiveness of actions by ambassadors on your business and reward/recognize the high-performing ambassadors

Let’s take a closer look at the different aspects of brand ambassador programs and discuss the 10 questions you need to answer to create a successful brand ambassador program.

1. What are the goals of your brand ambassador program?

A brand ambassador can help you reach both awareness and revenue goals for your brand. Base your program goals around quantity and quality of brand ambassadors. From a quantity perspective, the goals can be based on location (city, region, and country). Influence, commitment, contribution and quality of contribution would form the basis for a quality goal.

2. Who is your brand ambassador?

This is a basic question in a general sense, but can be tricky from a specific brand point of view. At a very high-level, a brand ambassador can be anyone who is willing to root for your brand. But, a brand must be able to answer the question of who their ideal brand ambassador is, the person that will influence your target audience the most. Customer segmentation and social engagement with your brand may influence the persona of the brand ambassador. In order to develop your brand ambassadors’ persona, consider qualitative aspects such as broader social influence, social engagement with your brand on social networks and quality and frequency of content creation along with traditional demographic aspects such as age, gender, location, race/ethnic origin and income group.

3. Should you have different types of ambassadors?

Brands have been using celebrity endorsements as a key marketing strategy for a long time. Social media creates authentic endorsements from customers and fans without any contractual obligations. Having different types of ambassadors such as sponsored talent (athletes, musicians, dancers, etc), influencers (such as bloggers and media personnel), customers, and fans allows you to scale and message your different types of ambassadors in a proper manner. In addition, different tiers of your program allows you to have different agreement with varying degrees of gives and gets.

4. How do you recruit your ambassadors?

There are many ways to find social influencers and recruit them as brand ambassadors. Ambassadors can be targeted based on a list of your existing customers, your social audience, and influencers. Or recruit potential ambassadors using social ads and/or promotions such as contests and sweepstakes. Use surveys, current social engagement with your brand’s social accounts, sentiment expressed on social networks regarding your brand, and the quality and quantity of the content to qualify potential ambassadors.  For bigger brands, finding the right set of ambassadors from millions of potential ambassadors is the key challenge. To determine which subset of ambassadors should be invited to take a survey to further qualify, brands can use social analytics tools. Once you identify the subset to be invited for the next step, you can use emails, social communication such as Twitter and Instagram Direct messages to invite them.

5. How do you structure your brand ambassador program?

You can keep your program completely private or public. Creating a private ambassador program makes your ambassadors feel special, ensuring their quality participation. In addition, you can control the quality and consistency of the participation. Ambassadors would love to be able to interact with other influential ambassadors thereby solidifying the bond between the brand and ambassadors and among ambassadors.

6. What should you ask your brand ambassadors to do? And how often?

Brand ambassador requirements should be aligned with your business process and tasks should be easy to complete. Here are some useful tasks:

  • Create content and buzz for a new product launch or for a seasonal campaign – brands can send product to ambassadors to test/wear/experience and write about the product on social networks (blogs, posts, pictures, videos, etc). An example of such content would be posting a selfie wearing a dress, pair of shoes, or eye-catching jewelry with the product hashtag. Another example could be recording a product demo video and uploading it to YouTube.
  • Share brand message on social networks – ask your ambassadors to share a specific message. This is the most basic ambassador requirement.
  • Answer community questions on social networks or via direct messaging – brand ambassadors can be community leaders to answer product questions.
  • Give feedback on marketing messaging for product launch – if a brand is creating multiple messages and advertisements, brand ambassadors can provide feedback on which messaging is the best.
  • Give ideas for new product design – new product ideas and features emerge from ambassador feedback.
  • Write editorial commentary on products – ambassadors can write editorial commentary for your products that can be displayed on product description pages
  • Vote on the new product designs – ambassadors can vote on product designs to pick the best designer/product. A large community is advised.
  • Identify your ambassadors interests to find complementary marketing opportunities.
  • Ask ambassadors to present a real-time product demo via video conferencing.

7. What should be the frequency of ambassador participation in campaigns?

You must determine the right frequency of asks based on your goals and ambassadors to avoid ‘brand fatigue’. In the case of sponsored ambassadors (like athletes), the frequency is well documented within the agreement. In cases of  non-contractual obligations, such as social ambassadors, the frequency should be around 2 campaigns per quarter.

8. What types of incentives should you offer your brand ambassadors?

Based on the type of ambassador (such as sponsored talent, influencer, social user), the incentive will be different. Sponsored talent ambassadors are under contract with their biggest incentive being keeping their sponsorship. The biggest incentive for influencers would be receiving brand recognition. As for fans and followers, recognition and rewards would be their key incentive. Therefore a mix of incentives is required to keep the quality of your ambassador performance high. All ambassadors want to receive recognition, so a good place to start would be featuring a fan photo on your social networks or website. Get creative when planning your incentives, not all ambassadors are motivated by rewards only!

9. What are your key success factors for your brand ambassador program?

  • Have a clear answer for ‘why should your brand have a brand ambassador program and how does it support your business goals?’
  • Answer the question “what’s in it for my ambassadors?”
  • Nurture emotional connection between your brand and the ambassador
  • Focus on the right personas for your brand ambassadors that is reflective of your model customer and influencer
  • Connect the dots between sponsorship programs and brand ambassador programs to use existing investments
  • Add contractual obligations for your sponsored talent to be apart of your brand ambassador program
  • Maintain ongoing communication from your brand to your ambassadors
  • Encourage ambassadors to interact with each other
  • Make the program easy to follow and use
  • Don’t let ambassadors experience ‘brand fatigue’
  • Enable friendly competition among ambassadors
  • Start with a few ambassadors and scale it based on results and need

10. How should I measure the success of the brand ambassador program?

The success metrics will differ for each brand. Take these key metrics into consideration:

Value – Content

  • Number of photos and videos shared by ambassadors

Value – Buzz

  • Ambassador reach across their social networks
  • Shares of the content produced/shared by ambassadors

Value – Traffic

  • Influenced clicks – the number of clicks that came in through content sharing by ambassadors


Value – Conversions and Revenue

  • Number of conversions due to content shared by ambassadors. This is calculated as the number of conversions that were influenced by ambassador produced content such as their personal photos and videos displayed on e-commerce sites or any other conversion pages (such as sign-up pages).

http://www.readypulse.com/create-a-successful-brand-ambassador-program-10-questions-every-marketer-must-answer/




BINGUNG memilih agen pemasaran internal atau eksternal ???

Whether your wholesale business has been in operation for years or you’re just beginning to get your products off the ground and onto shelves, you may be in the midst of making the choice between building an internal sales force or selling through independent sales reps.

While internal sales reps are on a company’s payroll regardless of how many sales they make, independent sales reps, also called “manufacturer’s reps,” will sell your line (and likely many others) while working solely on commission. These sales reps may be independent agents, or part of a larger rep firm.

In talking with wholesalers across a wide range of industries, it’s become clear that there are a number of key points to consider when choosing between these two sales structures. If you’re deciding whether to switch from independent to internal sales reps (or vice versa), or wondering which type of sales force will help you get a new product line onto retail shelves more quickly, here’s a quick guide to help you make the choice.

Independent Sales Reps vs. Internal Reps: The Pros and Cons

An Independent Sales Force

Pros:

  • The risks are minimal, as reps work on commission and don’t get paid if they don’t make sales.
  • If you don’t have sufficient territory coverage, independent reps may have established contacts that can help you enter new geographic markets.
  • Independent reps can help you get more feet on the ground quickly.

Cons:

  • Independent sales reps often sell many different lines and brands. Your products may not get as much attention, especially if your brand isn’t well-known.
  • If your products require some technical knowledge, training can be costly and difficult to coordinate.
  • A brand’s relationship with independent reps can be precarious, as they can decide to drop your line whenever they see fit. In the words of one wholesaler, “independent reps are here today, gone tomorrow.”

An Internal Sales Force

Pros:

  • Internal sales reps are your employees, and therefore exclusive representatives of your brand. You know they’ll be focused on your products, not distracted by others.
  • With their in-depth knowledge of your target market, brand story, etc., internal reps can provide a richer, more strategic selling experience.

Cons:

  • An internal sales force can take longer to scale.
  • Internal reps are on your payroll. You may end up investing time and resources into a sales rep that doesn’t end up meeting quota.

Key Considerations

Thus, with those pros and cons in mind, let’s take a look at some of the key questions that will influence your decision.

What is your budget?

If you have an aggressive go-to-market strategy, but don’t yet have the time or money to hire, train, and begin scaling your own internal sales team, working with independent sales reps may be your best option.

Where are you already selling and/or looking to sell?

You may decide to hire an internal sales team for larger, more saturated territories (where talent is plentiful and sales volume is higher), while also hiring independent reps for smaller territories where it’s more difficult for you to break into the market.

How strong is your competitive position?

Is your brand new or established? Where do you stand among your competitors? This can affect your decision of whether to go with independent or internal sales reps in a few different ways.

If you’re a relatively new brand, independent reps can be an effective way to leverage an independent rep’s existing relationships and spread into new territories more quickly. As mentioned in the previous point, this can also be a cost-effective strategy.

On the other hand, new or lesser known brands can be often overlooked by independent reps who have other more popular lines that are guaranteed to sell. Your brand equity can be a huge factor in how much time and effort reps will put into learning more about your products and pitching them to retailers. Remember: these reps work solely on commission. They may be carrying competing products, and they will sell what makes them money. For this reason, newer brands sometimes choose to cultivate their own internal sales teams.

How much do you care about your brand experience?

To a retailer, a sales rep can be the face of a brand. Indeed, some wholesalers refer to their sales reps as “brand ambassadors.” If you’re concerned with making sure that these representatives provide the best possible customer experience and a focused brand experience, you may not get that from an independent rep.

Are your products highly technical?

If selling your products involves a significant level of product knowledge, you may want to consider an internal sales team. Because independent sales reps often represent many different brands, sometimes across a wide variety of categories, they may not have the bandwidth for any additional product training.

How will you manage your sales force?

What’s your management style? Do you prefer your sales reps to take notes on customer interactions, track order history, play a bigger role in merchandising, etc.? Do you want to have a close, hands on relationship with the people selling your products? Internal sales reps might be your best bet.

If, on the other hand, you’re comfortable placing some distance between your company and the deal-making and selling happening on the front lines, you might work well with independent reps.

Is it your ultimate goal to have an internal sales force?

It’s sometimes the case that companies will decide to hire independent reps in the beginning, but plan on transitioning to an internal rep force after their brand is more established.

It’s important to remember, however, that B2B sales is all about relationships. If your brand’s relationship with a retailer was first created through an independent rep, it can be difficult to replace those reps with an internal sales force that has little or no connection with those existing customers. You may even end up competing directly with those reps who used to sell your products. This can be a disorienting––not to mention confusing––experience for your retailers.

Regardless of whether you decide to go with an exclusively internal sales team, an independent rep group, or a mixture of the two, we hope that this helped you figure out which model would work best for your business. Other key considerations or experiences to share? Let us know in the comments.

 

Summary of differences

Indpendent sales force:

  • Fast-paced
  • Work across a variety of brands simultaneously – need to have strong multitasking skills
  • Service focused – the clients are top priority
  • Relationship management
  • Time management to deal with competing priorities
  • Negotiating budgets
  • Pitches and presentations
  • Must be up-to-date with the latest trends and developments to ensure expertise

Internal sales force:

  • One brand to focus on
  • Planning and development is crucial
  • Can be political and bureaucratic
  • Need good influencing skills to work with internal stakeholders
  • Develop highly specialised skills in one or two areas
  • Can be siloed as a result of specialised centres of excellence
  • Manage multiple agencies on campaigns and projects
  • Need good commercial skills to sell-in ideas to internal stakeholders
  • Can suffer from the HiPPO problem!

Source: Sarah Leung (2015), edited




Tanggapan atas presentasi Product Life Cycle

EXPLOIT THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

By Theodore Levitt

Most alert and thoughtful senior marketing executives are by now familiar with the concept of the product life cycle. Even a handful of uniquely cosmopolitan and up-to-date corporate presidents have familiarized themselves with this tantalizing concept. Yet a recent survey I took of such executives found none who used the concept in any strategic way whatever, and pitifully few who used it in any kind of tactical way. It has remained—as have so many fascinating theories in economics, physics, and sex—a remarkably durable but almost totally unemployed and seemingly unemployable piece of professional baggage whose presence in the rhetoric of professional discussions adds a much coveted but apparently unattainable legitimacy to the idea that marketing management is somehow a profession. There is, furthermore, a persistent feeling that the life cycle concept adds luster and believability to the insistent claim in certain circles that marketing is close to being some sort of science.1

The concept of the product life cycle is today at about the stage that the Copernican view of the universe was 300 years ago: a lot of people knew about it, but hardly anybody seemed to use it in any effective or productive way.

Now that so many people know and in some fashion understand the product life cycle, it seems time to put it to work. The object of this article is to suggest some ways of using the concept effectively and of turning the knowledge of its existence into a managerial instrument of competitive power.

Since the concept has been presented somewhat differently by different authors and for different audiences, it is useful to review it briefly here so that every reader has the same background for the discussion which follows later in this article.

Historical Pattern

The life story of most successful products is a history of their passing through certain recognizable stages. These are shown in Exhibit I and occur in the following order:

Exhibit I Product Life Cycle—Entire Industry

Stage 1. Market Development

This is when a new product is first brought to market, before there is a proved demand for it, and often before it has been fully proved out technically in all respects. Sales are low and creep along slowly.

Stage 2. Market Growth

Demand begins to accelerate and the size of the total market expands rapidly. It might also be called the “Takeoff Stage.”

Stage 3. Market Maturity

Demand levels off and grows, for the most part, only at the replacement and new family-formation rate.

Stage 4. Market Decline

The product begins to lose consumer appeal and sales drift downward, such as when buggy whips lost out with the advent of automobiles and when silk lost out to nylon.

Three operating questions will quickly occur to the alert executive:

  • Given a proposed new product or service, how and to what extent can the shape and duration of each stage be predicted?
  • Given an existing product, how can one determine what stage it is in?
  • Given all this knowledge, how can it be effectively used?

A brief further elaboration of each stage will be useful before dealing with these questions in detail.

Development Stage

Bringing a new product to market is fraught with unknowns, uncertainties, and frequently unknowable risks. Generally, demand has to be “created” during the product’s initial market development stage. How long this takes depends on the product’s complexity, its degree of newness, its fit into consumer needs, and the presence of competitive substitutes of one form or another. A proved cancer cure would require virtually no market development; it would get immediate massive support. An alleged superior substitute for the lost-wax process of sculpture casting would take lots longer.

While it has been demonstrated time after time that properly customer-oriented new product development is one of the primary conditions of sales and profit growth, what have been demonstrated even more conclusively are the ravaging costs and frequent fatalities associated with launching new products. Nothing seems to take more time, cost more money, involve more pitfalls, cause more anguish, or break more careers than do sincere and well-conceived new product programs. The fact is, most new products don’t have any sort of classical life cycle curve at all. They have instead from the very outset an infinitely descending curve. The product not only doesn’t get off the ground; it goes quickly under ground—six feet under.

It is little wonder, therefore, that some disillusioned and badly burned companies have recently adopted a more conservative policy—what I call the “used apple policy.” Instead of aspiring to be the first company to see and seize an opportunity, they systematically avoid being first. They let others take the first bite of the supposedly juicy apple that tantalizes them. They let others do the pioneering. If the idea works, they quickly follow suit. They say, in effect, “The trouble with being a pioneer is that the pioneers get killed by the Indians.” Hence, they say (thoroughly mixing their metaphors), “We don’t have to get the first bite of the apple. The second one is good enough.” They are willing to eat off a used apple, but they try to be alert enough to make sure it is only slightly used—that they at least get the second big bite, not the tenth skimpy one.

Growth Stage

The usual characteristic of a successful new product is a gradual rise in its sales curve during the market development stage. At some point in this rise a marked increase in consumer demand occurs and sales take off. The boom is on. This is the beginning of Stage 2—the market growth stage. At this point potential competitors who have been watching developments during Stage I jump into the fray. The first ones to get in are generally those with an exceptionally effective “used apple policy.” Some enter the market with carbon-copies of the originator’s product. Others make functional and design improvements. And at this point product and brand differentiation begin to develop.

The ensuing fight for the consumer’s patronage poses to the originating producer an entirely new set of problems. Instead of seeking ways of getting consumers to try the product, the originator now faces the more compelling problem of getting them to prefer his brand. This generally requires important changes in marketing strategies and methods. But the policies and tactics now adopted will be neither freely the sole choice of the originating producer, nor as experimental as they might have been during Stage I. The presence of competitors both dictates and limits what can easily be tried—such as, for example, testing what is the best price level or the best channel of distribution.

As the rate of consumer acceptance accelerates, it generally becomes increasingly easy to open new distribution channels and retail outlets. The consequent filling of distribution pipelines generally causes the entire industry’s factory sales to rise more rapidly than store sales. This creates an exaggerated impression of profit opportunity which, in turn, attracts more competitors. Some of these will begin to charge lower prices because of later advances in technology, production shortcuts, the need to take lower margins in order to get distribution, and the like. All this in time inescapably moves the industry to the threshold of a new stage of competition.

Maturity Stage

This new stage is the market maturity stage. The first sign of its advent is evidence of market saturation. This means that most consumer companies or households that are sales prospects will be owning or using the product. Sales now grow about on a par with population. No more distribution pipelines need be filled. Price competition now becomes intense. Competitive attempts to achieve and hold brand preference now involve making finer and finer differentiations in the product, in customer services, and in the promotional practices and claims made for the product.

Typically, the market maturity stage forces the producer to concentrate on holding his distribution outlets, retaining his shelf space, and, in the end, trying to secure even more intensive distribution. Whereas during the market development stage the originator depended heavily on the positive efforts of his retailers and distributors to help sell his product, retailers and distributors will now frequently have been reduced largely to being merchandise-displayers and order-takers. In the case of branded products in particular, the originator must now, more than ever, communicate directly with the consumer.

The market maturity stage typically calls for a new kind of emphasis on competing more effectively. The originator is increasingly forced to appeal to the consumer on the basis of price, marginal product differences, or both. Depending on the product, services and deals offered in connection with it are often the clearest and most effective forms of differentiation. Beyond these, there will be attempts to create and promote fine product distinctions through packaging and advertising, and to appeal to special market segments. The market maturity stage can be passed through rapidly, as in the case of most women’s fashion fads, or it can persist for generations with per capita consumption neither rising nor falling, as in the case of such staples as men’s shoes and industrial fasteners. Or maturity can persist, but in a state of gradual but steady per capita decline, as in the case of beer and steel.

Decline Stage

When market maturity tapers off and consequently comes to an end, the product enters Stage 4—market decline. In all cases of maturity and decline the industry is transformed. Few companies are able to weather the competitive storm. As demand declines, the overcapacity that was already apparent during the period of maturity now becomes endemic. Some producers see the handwriting implacably on the wall but feel that with proper management and cunning they will be one of the survivors after the industry-wide deluge they so clearly foresee. To hasten their competitors’ eclipse directly, or to frighten them into early voluntary withdrawal from the industry, they initiate a variety of aggressively depressive tactics, propose mergers or buy-outs, and generally engage in activities that make life thanklessly burdensome for all firms, and make death the inevitable consequence for most of them. A few companies do indeed weather the storm, sustaining life through the constant descent that now clearly characterizes the industry. Production gets concentrated into fewer hands. Prices and margins get depressed. Consumers get bored. The only cases where there is any relief from this boredom and gradual euthanasia are where styling and fashion play some constantly revivifying role.

Preplanning Importance

Knowing that the lives of successful products and services are generally characterized by something like the pattern illustrated in Exhibit I can become the basis for important life-giving policies and practices. One of the greatest values of the life cycle concept is for managers about to launch a new product. The first step for them is to try to foresee the profile of the proposed product’s cycle.

As with so many things in business, and perhaps uniquely in marketing, it is almost impossible to make universally useful suggestions regarding how to manage one’s affairs. It is certainly particularly difficult to provide widely useful advice on how to foresee or predict the slope and duration of a product’s life. Indeed, it is precisely because so little specific day-to-day guidance is possible in anything, and because no checklist has ever by itself been very useful to anybody for very long, that business management will probably never be a science—always an art—and will pay exceptional rewards to managers with rare talent, enormous energy, iron nerve, great capacity for assuming responsibility and bearing accountability.

But this does not mean that useful efforts cannot or should not be made to try to foresee the slope and duration of a new product’s life. Time spent in attempting this kind of foresight not only helps assure that a more rational approach is brought to product planning and merchandising; also, as will be shown later, it can help create valuable lead time for important strategic and tactical moves after the product is brought to market. Specifically, it can be a great help in developing an orderly series of competitive moves, in expanding or stretching out the life of a product, in maintaining a clean product line, and in purposely phasing out dying and costly old products.2

Failure Possibilities…

As pointed out above, the length and slope of the market development stage depend on the product’s complexity, its degree of newness, its fit into customer needs, and the presence of competitive substitutes.

The more unique or distinctive the newness of the product, the longer it generally takes to get it successfully off the ground. The world does not automatically beat a path to the man with the better mousetrap.3 The world has to be told, coddled, enticed, romanced, and even bribed (as with, for example, coupons, samples, free application aids, and the like). When the product’s newness is distinctive and the job it is designed to do is unique, the public will generally be less quick to perceive it as something it clearly needs or wants.

This makes life particularly difficult for the innovator. He will have more than the usual difficulties of identifying those characteristics of his product and those supporting communications themes or devices which imply value to the consumer. As a consequence, the more distinctive the newness, the greater the risk of failure resulting either from insufficient working capital to sustain a long and frustrating period of creating enough solvent customers to make the proposition pay, or from the inability to convince investors and bankers that they should put up more money.

In any particular situation the more people who will be involved in making a single purchasing decision for a new product, the more drawn out Stage I will be. Thus in the highly fragmented construction materials industry, for example, success takes an exceptionally long time to catch hold; and having once caught hold, it tends to hold tenaciously for a long time—often too long. On the other hand, fashion items clearly catch on fastest and last shortest. But because fashion is so powerful, recently some companies in what often seem the least fashion influenced of industries (machine tools, for example) have shortened the market development stage by introducing elements of design and packaging fashion to their products.

What factors tend to prolong the market development stage and therefore raise the risk of failure? The more complex the product, the more distinctive its newness, the less influenced by fashion, the greater the number of persons influencing a single buying decision, the more costly, and the greater the required shift in the customer’s usual way of doing things—these are the conditions most likely to slow things up and create problems.

…vs. Success Chances

But problems also create opportunities to control the forces arrayed against new product success. For example, the newer the product, the more important it becomes for the customers to have a favorable first experience with it. Newness creates a certain special visibility for the product, with a certain number of people standing on the sidelines to see how the first customers get on with it. If their first experience is unfavorable in some crucial way, this may have repercussions far out of proportion to the actual extent of the underfulfillment of the customers’ expectations. But a favorable first experience or application will, for the same reason, get a lot of disproportionately favorable publicity.

The possibility of exaggerated disillusionment with a poor first experience can raise vital questions regarding the appropriate channels of distribution for a new product. On the one hand, getting the product successfully launched may require having—as in the case of, say, the early days of home washing machines—many retailers who can give consumers considerable help in the product’s correct utilization and thus help assure a favorable first experience for those buyers. On the other hand, channels that provide this kind of help (such as small neighborhood appliance stores in the case of washing machines) during the market development stage may not be the ones best able to merchandise the product most successfully later when help in creating and personally reassuring customers is less important than wide product distribution. To the extent that channel decisions during this first stage sacrifice some of the requirements of the market development stage to some of the requirements of later stages, the rate of the product’s acceptance by consumers at the outset may be delayed.

In entering the market development stage, pricing decisions are often particularly hard for the producer to make. Should he set an initially high price to recoup his investment quickly—i.e., “skim the cream”—or should he set a low price to discourage potential competition—i.e., “exclusion”? The answer depends on the innovator’s estimate of the probable length of the product’s life cycle, the degree of patent protection the product is likely to enjoy, the amount of capital needed to get the product off the ground, the elasticity of demand during the early life of the product, and many other factors. The decision that is finally made may affect not just the rate at which the product catches on at the beginning, but even the duration of its total life. Thus some products that are priced too low at the outset (particularly fashion goods, such as the chemise, or sack, a few years ago) may catch on so quickly that they become short-lived fads. A slower rate of consumer acceptance might often extend their life cycles and raise the total profits they yield.

The actual slope, or rate of the growth stage, depends on some of the same things as does success or failure in Stage I. But the extent to which patent exclusiveness can play a critical role is sometimes inexplicably forgotten. More frequently than one might offhand expect, holders of strong patent positions fail to recognize either the market-development virtue of making their patents available to competitors or the market-destroying possibilities of failing to control more effectively their competitors’ use of such products.

Generally speaking, the more producers there are of a new product, the more effort goes into developing a market for it. The net result is very likely to be more rapid and steeper growth of the total market. The originator’s market share may fall, but his total sales and profits may rise more rapidly. Certainly this has been the case in recent years of color television; RCA’s eagerness to make its tubes available to competitors reflects its recognition of the power of numbers over the power of monopoly.

On the other hand, the failure to set and enforce appropriate quality standards in the early days of polystyrene and polyethylene drinking glasses and cups produced such sloppy, inferior goods that it took years to recover the consumer’s confidence and revive the growth pattern.

But to try to see in advance what a product’s growth pattern might be is not very useful if one fails to distinguish between the industry pattern and the pattern of the single firm—for its particular brand. The industry’s cycle will almost certainly be different from the cycle of individual firms. Moreover, the life cycle of a given product may be different for different companies in the same industry at the same point in time, and it certainly affects different companies in the same industry differently.

Originator’s Burdens

The company with most at stake is the original producer—the company that launches an entirely new product. This company generally bears most of the costs, the tribulations, and certainly the risks of developing both the product and the market.

Competitive Pressure

Once the innovator demonstrates during the market development stage that a solid demand exists, armies of imitators rush in to capitalize on and help create the boom that becomes the market growth, or takeoff, stage. As a result, while exceedingly rapid growth will now characterize the product’s total demand, for the originating company its growth stage paradoxically now becomes truncated. It has to share the boom with new competitors. Hence the potential rate of acceleration of its own takeoff is diminished and, indeed, may actually fail to last as long as the industry’s. This occurs not only because there are so many competitors, but, as we noted earlier, also because competitors often come in with product improvements and lower prices. While these developments generally help keep the market expanding, they greatly restrict the originating company’s rate of growth and the length of its takeoff stage.

All this can be illustrated by comparing the curve in Exhibit II with that in Exhibit I, which shows the life cycle for a product. During Stage I in Exhibit I there is generally only one company—the originator—even though the whole exhibit represents the entire industry. In Stage I the originator is the entire industry. But by Stage 2 he shares the industry with many competitors. Hence, while Exhibit I is an industry curve, its Stage I represents only a single company’s sales.

Exhibit II Product Life Cycle—Originating Company

Exhibit II shows the life cycle of the originator’s brand—his own sales curve, not that of the industry. It can be seen that between Year 1 and Year 2 his sales are rising about as rapidly as the industry’s. But after Year 2, while industry sales in Exhibit I are still in vigorous expansion, the originator’s sales curve in Exhibit II has begun to slow its ascent. He is now sharing the boom with a great many competitors, some of whom are much better positioned now than he is.

Profit Squeeze

In the process the originator may begin to encounter a serious squeeze on his profit margins. Exhibit III, which traces the profits per unit of the originator’s sales, illustrates this point. During the market development stage his per-unit profits are negative. Sales volume is too low at existing prices. However, during the market growth stage unit profits boom as output rises and unit production costs fall. Total profits rise enormously. It is the presence of such lush profits that both attracts and ultimately destroys competitors.

Exhibit III Unit Profit Contribution Life Cycle—Originating Company

Consequently, while (1) industry sales may still be rising nicely (as at the Year 3 point in Exhibit I), and (2) while the originating company’s sales may at the same point of time have begun to slow down noticeably (as in Exhibit II), and (3) while at this point the originator’s total profits may still be rising because his volume of sales is huge and on a slight upward trend, his profits per unit will often have taken a drastic downward course. Indeed, they will often have done so long before the sales curve flattened. They will have topped out and begun to decline perhaps around the Year 2 point (as in Exhibit III). By the time the originator’s sales begin to flatten out (as at the Year 3 point in Exhibit II), unit profits may actually be approaching zero (as in Exhibit III).

At this point more competitors are in the industry, the rate of industry demand growth has slowed somewhat, and competitors are cutting prices. Some of them do this in order to get business, and others do it because their costs are lower owing to the fact that their equipment is more modern and productive.

The industry’s Stage 3—maturity—generally lasts as long as there are no important competitive substitutes (such as, for example, aluminum for steel in “tin” cans), no drastic shifts in influential value systems (such as the end of female modesty in the 1920’s and the consequent destruction of the market for veils), no major changes in dominant fashions (such as the hour-glass female form and the end of waist cinchers), no changes in the demand for primary products which use the product in question (such as the effect of the decline of new rail road expansion on the demand for railroad ties), and no changes either in the rate of obsolescence of the product or in the character or introductory rate of product modifications.

Maturity can last for a long time, or it can actually never be attained. Fashion goods and fad items sometimes surge to sudden heights, hesitate momentarily at an uneasy peak, and then quickly drop off into total obscurity.

Stage Recognition

The various characteristics of the stages described above will help one to recognize the stage a particular product occupies at any given time. But hindsight will always be more accurate than current sight. Perhaps the best way of seeing one’s current stage is to try to foresee the next stage and work backwards. This approach has several virtues:

  • It forces one to look ahead, constantly to try to reforesee his future and competitive environment. This will have its own rewards. As Charles F. Kettering, perhaps the last of Detroit’s primitive inventors and probably the greatest of all its inventors, was fond of saying, “We should all be concerned about the future because that’s where we’ll have to spend the rest of our lives.” By looking at the future one can better assess the state of the present.
  • Looking ahead gives more perspective to the present than looking at the present alone. Most people know more about the present than is good for them. It is neither healthy nor helpful to know the present too well, for our perception of the present is too often too heavily distorted by the urgent pressures of day-to-day events. To know where the present is in the continuum of competitive time and events, it often makes more sense to try to know what the future will bring, and when it will bring it, than to try to know what the present itself actually contains.
  • Finally, the value of knowing what stage a product occupies at any given time resides only in the way that fact is used. But its use is always in the future. Hence a prediction of the future environment in which the information will be used is often more functional for the effective capitalization on knowledge about the present than knowledge about the present itself.

Sequential Actions

The life cycle concept can be effectively employed in the strategy of both existing and new products. For purposes of continuity and clarity, the remainder of this article will describe some of the uses of the concept from the early stages of new product planning through the later stages of keeping the product profitably alive. The chief discussion will focus on what I call a policy of “life extension” or “market stretching.”4

To the extent that Exhibits II and III outline the classical patterns of successful new products, one of the constant aims of the originating producer should be to avoid the severe discipline imposed by an early profit squeeze in the market growth stage, and to avoid the wear and waste so typical of the market maturity stage. Hence the following proposition would seem reasonable: when a company develops a new product or service, it should try to plan at the very outset a series of actions to be employed at various subsequent stages in the product’s existence so that its sales and profit curves are constantly sustained rather than following their usual declining slope.

In other words, advance planning should be directed at extending, or stretching out, the life of the product. It is this idea of planning in advance of the actual launching of a new product to take specific actions later in its life cycle—actions designed to sustain its growth and profitability—which appears to have great potential as an instrument of long-term product strategy.

Nylon’s Life

How this might work for a product can be illustrated by looking at the history of nylon. The way in which nylon’s booming sales life has been repeatedly and systematically extended and stretched can serve as a model for other products. What has happened in nylon may not have been purposely planned that way at the outset, but the results are quite as if they had been planned.

The first nylon end-uses were primarily military—parachutes, thread, rope. This was followed by nylon’s entry into the circular knit market and its consequent domination of the women’s hosiery business. Here it developed the kind of steadily rising growth and profit curves that every executive dreams about. After some years these curves began to flatten out. But before they flattened very noticeably, Du Pont had already developed measures designed to revitalize sales and profits. It did several things, each of which is demonstrated graphically in Exhibit IV. This exhibit and the explanation which follows take some liberties with the actual facts of the nylon situation in order to highlight the points I wish to make. But they take no liberties with the essential requisites of product strategy.

Exhibit IV Hypothetical Life Cycle—Nylon

Point A of Exhibit IV shows the hypothetical point at which the nylon curve (dominated at this point by hosiery) flattened out. If nothing further had been done, the sales curve would have continued along the flattened pace indicated by the dotted line at Point A. This is also the hypothetical point at which the first systematic effort was made to extend the product’s life. Du Pont, in effect, took certain “actions” which pushed hosiery sales upward rather than continuing the path implied by the dotted line extension of the curve at Point A. At Point A action #1 pushed an otherwise flat curve upward.

At points B, C, and D still other new sales and profit expansion “actions” (#2, #3, #4, and so forth) were taken. What were these actions? Or, more usefully, what was their strategic content? What did they try to do? They involved strategies that tried to expand sales via four different routes:

  1. Promoting more frequent usage of the product among current users.
  2. Developing more varied usage of the product among current users.
  3. Creating new users for the product by expanding the market.
  4. Finding new uses for the basic material.

Frequent Usage.

Du Pont studies had shown an increasing trend toward “bareleggedness” among women. This was coincident with the trend toward more casual living and a declining perception among teenagers of what might be called the “social necessity” of wearing stockings. In the light of those findings, one approach to propping up the flattening sales curves might have been to reiterate the social necessity of wearing stockings at all times. That would have been a sales-building action, though obviously difficult and exceedingly costly. But it could clearly have fulfilled the strategy of promoting more frequent usage among current users as a means of extending the product’s life.

Varied Usage.

For Du Pont, this strategy took the form of an attempt to promote the “fashion smartness” of tinted hose and later of patterned and highly textured hosiery. The idea was to raise each woman’s inventory of hosiery by obsolescing the perception of hosiery as a fashion staple that came only in a narrow range of browns and pinks. Hosiery was to be converted from a “neutral” accessory to a central ingredient of fashion, with a “suitable” tint and pattern for each outer garment in the lady’s wardrobe.

This not only would raise sales by expanding women’s hosiery wardrobes and stores’ inventories, but would open the door for annual tint and pattern obsolescence much the same as there is an annual color obsolescence in outer garments. Beyond that, the use of color and pattern to focus attention on the leg would help arrest the decline of the leg as an element of sex appeal—a trend which some researchers had discerned and which, they claimed, damaged hosiery sales.

New Users.

Creating new users for nylon hosiery might conceivably have taken the form of attempting to legitimize the necessity of wearing hosiery among early teenagers and subteenagers. Advertising, public relations, and merchandising of youthful social and style leaders would have been called for.

New Uses.

For nylon, this tactic has had many triumphs—from varied types of hosiery, such as stretch stockings and stretch socks, to new uses, such as rugs, tires, bearings, and so forth. Indeed, if there had been no further product innovations designed to create new uses for nylon after the original military, miscellaneous, and circular knit uses, nylon consumption in 1962 would have reached a saturation level at approximately 50 million pounds annually.

Instead, in 1962 consumption exceeded 500 million pounds. Exhibit V demonstrates how the continuous development of new uses for the basic material constantly produced new waves of sales. The exhibit shows that in spite of the growth of the women’s stocking market, the cumulative result of the military, circular knit, and miscellaneous grouping would have been a flattened sales curve by 1958. (Nylon’s entry into the broadwoven market in 1944 substantially raised sales above what they would have been. Even so, the sales of broadwoven, circular knit, and military and miscellaneous groupings peaked in 1957.)

Exhibit V Innovation of New Products Postpones the Time of Total Maturity—Nylon Industry Source: Modern Textiles Magazine, February 1964, p. 33. © 1962 by Jordan P. Yale

Had it not been for the addition of new uses for the same basic material—such as warp knits in 1945, tire cord in 1948, textured yarns in 1955, carpet yarns in 1959, and so forth—nylon would not have had the spectacularly rising consumption curve it has so clearly had. At various stages it would have exhausted its existing markets or been forced into decline by competing materials. The systematic search for new uses for the basic (and improved) material extended and stretched the product’s life.

Other Examples

Few companies seem to employ in any systematic or planned way the four product lifestretching steps described above. Yet the successful application of this kind of stretching strategy has characterized the history of such well-known products as General Foods Corporation’s “Jell-O” and Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co.’s “Scotch” tape.5

Jell-O was a pioneer in the easy-to-prepare gelatin dessert field. The soundness of the product concept and the excellence of its early marketing activities gave it beautifully ascending sales and profit curves almost from the start. But after some years these curves predictably began to flatten out. Scotch tape was also a pioneer product in its field. Once perfected, the product gained rapid market acceptance because of a sound product concept and an aggressive sales organization. But, again, in time the sales and profit curves began to flatten out. Before they flattened out very much, however, 3M, like General Foods, had already developed measures to sustain the early pace of sales and profits.

Both of these companies extended their products’ lives by, in effect, doing all four of the things Du Pont did with nylon—creating more frequent usage among current users, more varied usage among current users, new users, and new uses for the basic “materials”:

(1) The General Foods approach to increasing the frequency of serving Jell-O among current users was, essentially, to increase the number of flavors. From Don Wilson’s famous “six delicious flavors,” Jell-O moved up to over a dozen. On the other hand, 3M helped raise sales among its current users by developing a variety of handy Scotch tape dispensers which made the product easier to use.

(2) Creation of more varied usage of Jell-O among current dessert users involved its promotion as a base for salads and the facilitation of this usage by the development of a variety of vegetable flavored Jell-O’s. Similarly, 3M developed a line of colored, patterned, waterproof, invisible, and write-on Scotch tapes which have enjoyed considerable success as sealing and decorating items for holiday and gift wrapping.

(3) Jell-O sought to create new users by pinpointing people who could not accept Jell-O as a popular dessert or salad product. Hence during the Metrecal boom Jell-O employed an advertising theme that successfully affixed to the product a fashion-oriented weight control appeal. Similarly, 3M introduced “Rocket” tape, a product much like Scotch tape but lower in price, and also developed a line of commercial cellophane tapes of various widths, lengths, and strengths. These actions broadened product use in commercial and industrial markets.

(4) Both Jell-O and 3M have sought out new uses for the basic material. It is known, for example, that women consumers use powdered gelatin dissolved in liquids as a means of strengthening their fingernails. Both men and women use it in the same way as a bone-building agent. Hence Jell-O introduced a “completely flavorless” Jell-O for just these purposes. 3M has also developed new uses for the basic material—from “doublecoated” tape (adhesive on both sides) which competes with ordinary liquid adhesives, to the reflecting tape which festoons countless automobile bumpers, to marker strips which compete with paint.

Extension Strategies

The existence of the kinds of product life cycles illustrated in Exhibits I and II and the unit profit cycle in Exhibit III suggests that there may be considerable value for people involved in new product work to begin planning for the extension of the lives of their products even before these products are formally launched. To plan for new life-extending infusions of effort (as in Exhibit IV) at this pre-introduction stage can be extremely useful in three profoundly important ways.

  1. It generates an active rather than a reactive product policy.

It systematically structures a company’s long-term marketing and product development efforts in advance, rather than each effort or activity being merely a stop-gap response to the urgent pressures of repeated competitive thrusts and declining profits. The life-extension view of product policy enforces thinking and planning ahead—thinking in some systematic way about the moves likely to be made by potential competitors, about possible changes in consumer reactions to the product, and the required selling activities which best take advantage of these conditional events.

  1. It lays out a long-term plan designed to infuse new life into the product at the right time, with the right degree of care, and with the right amount of effort.

Many activities designed to raise the sales and profits of existing products or materials are often undertaken without regard to their relationship to each other or to timing—the optimum point of consumer readiness for such activities or the point of optimum competitive effectiveness. Careful advance planning, long before the need for such activity arises, can help assure that the timing, the care, and the efforts are appropriate to the situation.

For example, it appears extremely doubtful that the boom in women’s hair coloring and hair tinting products would have been as spectacular if vigorous efforts to sell these products had preceded the boom in hair sprays and chemical hair fixers. The latter helped create a powerful consumer consciousness of hair fashions because they made it relatively easy to create and wear fashionable hair styles. Once it became easy for women to have fashionable hair styles, the resulting fashion consciousness helped open the door for hair colors and tints. It could not have happened the other way around, with colors and tints first creating fashion consciousness and thus raising the sales of sprays and fixers. Because understanding the reason for this precise order of events is essential for appreciating the importance of early pre-introduction life-extension planning, it is useful to go into a bit of detail. Consider:

For women, setting their hair has been a perennial problem for centuries. First, the length and treatment of their hair is one of the most obvious ways in which they distinguish themselves from men. Hence to be attractive in that distinction becomes crucial. Second, hair frames and highlights the face, much like an attractive wooden border frames and highlights a beautiful painting. Thus hair styling is an important element in accentuating the appearance of a woman’s facial features. Third, since the hair is long and soft, it is hard to hold in an attractive arrangement. It gets mussed in sleep, wind, damp weather, sporting activities, and so forth.

Therefore, the effective arrangement of a woman’s hair is understandably her first priority in hair care. An unkempt brunette would gain nothing from making herself into a blond. Indeed, in a country where blonds are in the minority, the switch from being an unkempt brunette to being an unkempt blond would simply draw attention to her sloppiness. But once the problem of arrangement became easily “solved” by sprays and fixers, colors and tints could become big business, especially among women whose hair was beginning to turn gray.

The same order of priorities applies in industrial products. For example, it seems quite inconceivable that many manufacturing plants would easily have accepted the replacement of the old single-spindle, constantly man-tended screw machine by a computerized tape-tended, multiple-spindle machine. The mechanical tending of the multiple-spindle machine was a necessary intermediate step, if for no other reason than that it required a lesser work-flow change, and certainly a lesser conceptual leap for the companies and the machine-tending workers involved.

For Jell-O, it is unlikely that vegetable flavors would have been very successful before the idea of gelatin as a salad base had been pretty well accepted. Similarly, the promotion of colored and patterned Scotch tape as a gift and decorative seal might not have been as successful if department stores had not, as the result of their drive to compete more effectively with mass merchandisers by offering more customer services, previously demonstrated to the consumer what could be done to wrap and decorate gifts.

  1. Perhaps the most important benefit of engaging in advance, pre-introduction planning for sales-extending, market-stretching activities later in the product’s life is that this practice forces a company to adopt a wider view of the nature of the product it is dealing with.

Indeed, it may even force the adoption of a wider view of the company’s business. Take the case of Jell-O. What is its product? Over the years Jell-O has become the brand umbrella for a wide range of dessert products, including cornstarch-base puddings, pie fillings, and the new “Whip’n Chill,” a light dessert product similar to a Bavarian Creme or French Mousse. On the basis of these products, it might be said that the Jell-O Division of General Foods is in the “dessert technology” business.

In the case of tape, perhaps 3M has gone even further in this technological approach to its business. It has a particular expertise (technology) on which it has built a constantly expanding business. This expertise can be said to be that of bonding things (adhesives in the case of Scotch tape) to other things, particularly to thin materials. Hence we see 3M developing scores of profitable items, including electronic recording tape (bonding electron-sensitive materials to tape), and “Thermo-Fax” duplicating equipment and supplies (bonding heat reactive materials to paper).

Conclusion

For companies interested in continued growth and profits, successful new product strategy should be viewed as a planned totality that looks ahead over some years. For its own good, new product strategy should try to predict in some measure the likelihood, character, and timing of competitive and market events. While prediction is always hazardous and seldom very accurate, it is undoubtedly far better than not trying to predict at all. In fact, every product strategy and every business decision inescapably involves making a prediction about the future, about the market, and about competitors. To be more systematically aware of the predictions one is making so that one acts on them in an offensive rather than a defensive or reactive fashion—this is the real virtue of preplanning for market stretching and product life extension. The result will be a product strategy-that includes some sort of plan for a timed sequence of conditional moves.

Even before entering the market development stage, the originator should make a judgment regarding the probable length of the product’s normal life, taking into account the possibilities of expanding its uses and users. This judgment will also help determine many things—for example, whether to price the product on a skimming or a penetration basis, or what kind of relationship the company should develop with its resellers.

These considerations are important because at each stage in a product’s life cycle each management decision must consider the competitive requirements of the next stage. Thus a decision to establish a strong branding policy during the market growth stage might help to insulate the brand against strong price competition later; a decision to establish a policy of “protected” dealers in the market development stage might facilitate point-of-sale promotions during the market growth state, and so on. In short, having a clear idea of future product development possibilities and market development opportunities should reduce the likelihood of becoming locked into forms of merchandising that might possibly prove undesirable.

This kind of advance thinking about new product strategy helps management avoid other pitfalls. For instance, advertising campaigns that look successful from a short-term view may hurt in the next stage of the life cycle. Thus at the outset Metrecal advertising used a strong medical theme. Sales boomed until imitative competitors successfully emphasized fashionable slimness. Metrecal had projected itself as the dietary for the overweight consumer, an image that proved far less appealing than that of being the dietary for people who were fashion-smart. But Metrecal’s original appeal had been so strong and so well made that it was a formidable task later on to change people’s impressions about the product. Obviously, with more careful long-range planning at the outset, a product’s image can be more carefully positioned and advertising can have more clearly defined objectives.

Recognizing the importance of an orderly series of steps in the introduction of sales-building “actions” for new products should be a central ingredient of long-term product planning. A carefully preplanned program for market expansion, even before a new product is introduced, can have powerful virtues. The establishment of a rational plan for the future can also help to guide the direction and pace of the on-going technical research in support of the product. Although departures from such a plan will surely have to be made to accommodate unexpected events and revised judgments, the plan puts the company in a better position to make things happen rather than constantly having to react to things that are happening.

It is important that the originator doesnot delay this long-term planning until after the product’s introduction. How the product should be introduced and the many uses for which it might be promoted at the outset should be a function of a careful consideration of the optimum sequence of suggested product appeals and product uses. Consideration must focus not just on optimum things to do, but as importantly on their optimum sequence—for instance, what the order of use of various appeals should be and what the order of suggested product uses should be. If Jell-O’s first suggested use had been as a diet food, its chances of later making a big and easy impact in the gelatin dessert market undoubtedly would have been greatly diminished. Similarly, if nylon hosiery had been promoted at the outset as a functional daytime-wear hosiery, its ability to replace silk as the acceptable high-fashion hosiery would have been greatly diminished.

To illustrate the virtue of pre-introduction planning for a product’s later life, suppose a company has developed a nonpatentable new product—say, an ordinary kitchen salt shaker. Suppose that nobody now has any kind of shaker. One might say, before launching it, that (1) it has a potential market of “x” million household, institutional, and commercial consumers, (2) in two years market maturity will set in, and (3) in one year profit margins will fall because of the entry of competition. Hence one might lay out the following plan:

  1. End of first year: expand market among current users

Ideas—new designs, such as sterling shaker for formal use, “masculine” shaker for barbecue use, antique shaker for “Early American” households, miniature shaker for each table place setting, moisture-proof design for beach picnics.

  1. End of second year: expand market to new users

Ideas—designs for children, quaffer design for beer drinkers in bars, design for sadists to rub salt into open wounds.

III. End of third year: find new uses

Ideas—make identical product for use as a pepper shaker, as decorative garlic salt shaker, shaker for household scouring powder, shaker to sprinkle silicon dust on parts being machined in machine shops, and so forth.

This effort to prethink methods of reactivating a flattening sales curve far in advance of its becoming flat enables product planners to assign priorities to each task, and to plan future production expansion and capital and marketing requirements in a systematic fashion. It prevents one’s trying to do too many things at once, results in priorities being determined rationally instead of as accidental consequences of the timing of new ideas, and disciplines both the product development effort that is launched in support of a product’s growth and the marketing effort that is required for its continued success.

  1. For discussions of the scientific claims or potentials of marketing, see George Schwartz, Development of Marketing Theory(Cincinnati Ohio, South-Western Publishing Co., 1963); and Reavis Cox, Wroe Alderson, and Stanley J. Shapiro, editors, Theory in Marketing(Homewood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., Second Series, 1964).
  2. See Philip Kotler, “Phasing Out Weak Products,” HBR March–April 1965, p. 107.
  3. For perhaps the ultimate example of how the world does notbeat such a path, see the example of the man who actually, and to his painful regret, made a “better” mousetrap, in John B. Matthews, Jr., R. D. Buzzell, Theodore Levitt, and Ronald E. Frank, Marketing:An Introductory Analysis(New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1964), p. 4.
  4. For related ideas on discerning opportunities for product revivification, see Lee Adler, “A New Orientation for Plotting a Marketing Strategy,” Business Horizons,Winter 1964, p. 37.
  5. I am indebted to my colleague, Dr. Derek A. Newton, for these examples and other helpful suggestions.

A version of this article appeared in the November 1965 issue of Harvard Business Review.

Theodore Levitt, a longtime professor of marketing at Harvard Business School in Boston, is now professor emeritus. His most recent books are Thinking About Management (1990) and The Marketing Imagination (1983), both from Free Press.




Demo, kind of marketing

INTERNAL MARKETING

  • Pentingnya pemasaran internal baik dalam keadaan normal maupun dalam keadaan bahaya.
  • Krisis tidak akan diketahui selama belum terjadi. Ketidakmampuan mengetahui terjadinya krisis merupakan kejadian fatal yang dapat merugikan banyak pihak. Pembiaran krisis akan diikuti oleh banyak pihak. Jika pihak terkait menyadari hal itu tetapi sedang menikmati krisis tersebut.
  • Demo yang dilakukan beberapa waktu yang lalu merupakan contoh bagaimana salah satu pihak tidak menganggap suatu hal prinsip tetapi pihak lain menjadikan hal tersebut merupakan suatu prinsip. Bahkan dilawan dengan tindakan sejenis yang mengakibatkan retak-retak hubungan semakin terlihat jelas menjadi tanda-tanda retak-retak yang semakin merekah.
  • Jika tidak diambil tindakan segera akan terjadi ANTIKLIMAKS.

Di bawah ini suatu kutipan yang dapat diambil hikmahnya.

Employees Will Be Heard

“Employees are increasingly important voices during crises,” says Shel Holtz, principal of Holtz Communication + Technology in San Francisco. “Thanks to social media, what an employee says is heard by a lot of people.”

Employees at Starbucks found themselves thrust into controversy in March 2015 after the company launched a marketing campaign aimed at getting its customers to talk about race by writing the slogan “Race Together” on its cups. The public backlash was fast and furious: Almost three-fifths of the 79,000 social media mentions of the campaign on its first day were negative. The overall sentiment was that Starbucks was oversimplifying a complex issue and exploiting racial tension for publicity.

But Starbucks’ CEO Howard Schultz did the right thing in following up with employees immediately, according to Paul A. Argenti, professor at Dartmouth College’s Tuck School of Business. He quickly wrote an all-staff memo thanking Starbucks employees for their work on the weeklong initiative and describing the other efforts the company was pursuing to address diversity and inequality. “Starbucks has been really good at dealing with crises internally, and Schultz is excellent at writing internally and using it externally,” Argenti says.

Indeed, Schultz took a proactive approach by making that “internal” memo public—aligning his strategies for handling the crisis within and outside the company. “Internal communications should at least be concurrent with external communications,” Holtz says.

A month later, Starbucks proved that it had successfully weathered the storm: The company’s stock hit an all-time high.

Thanks to social media, the public now has direct access to a trusted source of information: employees. And today’s media-savvy populace tends to put greater faith in what rank-and-file staff have to say than in what comes from corporate spokespeople, according to the 2016 Edelman Trust Barometer. “Inside information is always viewed as more reliable than third-party information,” says Steven Fink, president and CEO at Lexicon Communications Corp. in Los Angeles.

HR and communications experts differ in their opinions about whether employees should be able to communicate externally on behalf of the company following a crisis or if only designated spokespeople should do so, but they agree that trying to block social media channels is simply not feasible. Instead of attempting to halt the flood of communication, HR would do better to offer employees accurate and timely information that they can disperse to their own online networks, experts say.

“Give them the information and the confidence to address it with their communities,” Holtz says, especially if the crisis involves employees’ subject matter expertise. “Most organizations don’t take that approach, and I think that’s wrong,” he adds.

“Employees are probably going to be the single biggest determinant in how fast and how well an organization recovers from a crisis, and they’ll be the first contact with customers as recovery occurs,” says Paul Barton, principal consultant at Paul Barton Communications in Phoenix.

That means that failing to keep workers in the loop during emergencies can come at a high cost. “Employees recognize how an organization communicates a crisis,” says Iloma Simmons, SHRM-CP, senior employee relations specialist at JLL, a professional services firm based in Chicago. How leaders handle these situations will dictate how much faith employees and business partners will have in them, she says.

Just as important as planning before disaster strikes is the flip side—assessing communications afterward.

Communicating is also important for ensuring continued productivity. If staff are unaware of their organization’s response, “people are spending more time talking about what’s happening than doing their jobs,” says Jeanne Achille, president and CEO of The Devon Group in Red Bank, N.J.

A communications blackout is likely to affect how employees feel about returning to work as well. “Once a crisis is over, we need employees to come back in a positive, willing way to work,” says Ivan Thompson, vice president for HR and CHRO at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas.

Sidebar: 8 Tips for Communicating with Employees During a Crisis

1. Be proactive. Anticipate and plan for crises that your organization could encounter before they happen.
2. Get a team together. During the planning phase, identify employees who will make up the crisis management team—the people who will know what to do when disaster strikes.
3. Don’t expect employees to come to you. Implement a notification system that quickly reaches out to employees with accurate information and guidance.
4. Don’t put up roadblocks. Trying to keep employees from communicating about crises via social media is futile. Instead, help them shape their messages by giving them correct information in a timely manner.
5. Act fast—but only say what you know to be true. Speed is of the essence when it comes to crisis communications, but it shouldn’t come at the price of accuracy.

6. Don’t go silent. If your organization is not yet ready to respond to an emergency, HR should at least let staffers know that the organization is gathering information and will follow up as soon as it can.

7. Test—then test again. The most well-crafted communication plan won’t be very helpful if employees have no idea what it is or how to use it. At least once a year, test the process to find out from workers what it does and doesn’t do well, and then adjust accordingly.
8. Evaluate. Post-crisis assessments are as important as pre-crisis plans. After the fact, review how the internal communication plan was executed. Determine what succeeded and what can be improved.

Smooth Delivery

Even though different internal audiences may need different information, depending on how the crisis affects them and their ability to do their jobs, employers should keep messages consistent. Doing so makes it unlikely that employees will have different understandings of the situation or will feel like they’re not being treated the same as their colleagues. “Anyone who’s impacted by a crisis should receive the same information at the same time,” Simmons says.

She made sure that happened at imaging company Canon, where she worked when Hurricane Sandy hit the eastern seaboard in 2012. All communications directed at Canon employees on the East Coast—such as office closures, assistance hotlines and donation options—were also communicated to workers in the Midwest. “I made sure the information on the regional level was disseminated on the national level by working with senior management and putting that information in e-mails and weekly newsletters,” she says.

It’s also best if all communication originates from the same source—preferably senior leaders—and if employees at all rungs on the corporate ladder are given the same message.

You need to communicate with everyone at once because you want everyone to think and act like owners,” Argenti says. During crises, company leaders should ideally communicate with their staff face to face—which is what leaders at The New York Times did in the aftermath of the Sept. 11 attacks, Argenti says. When that’s not possible, a videoconference or audio message from the CEO can be an effective alternative. “After [Sept. 11], Goldman Sachs’ CEO used voice mail, and hearing his voice was comforting for employees,” he says.

As tempting as it may be to go silent until you have a firm handle on the situation, don’t. It’s better to simply communicate what you do and don’t know. “Even if complete information is not available, at least communicate so that there’s not an information vacuum,” Thompson says.

At the same time, don’t share anything you can’t verify. “Speed is of the essence, but it should be tempered by the need for accurate information,” Thompson adds.

Work with company leaders to communicate with employees as quickly and efficiently as possible. “HR should know the best ways to get in touch with employees,” Achille says. If the messaging comes from managers rather than directly from the CEO, help train those supervisors in crisis communications. “HR needs to make sure those managers know how to deliver a crisis message,” she says.

Achille advises having a standby statement: “We’re looking at the situation, and we’ll be back in touch shortly,” for example. “You want to at least acknowledge you have a sense of what’s going on,” she says. “You set expectations that will quiet down the noise level among employees.”

Plan and Review

When a crisis hits, don’t wait for employees to come to you for information. HR should immediately reach out. At Nashville-based design and architecture firmGresham, Smith and Partners, employees used to be notified about emergencies via a recorded message when they called a specific phone number.

But during a test of the system, HR found that, among the 680 employees at the company’s headquarters, only a dozen actually checked the message over a two-week period. “It required multiple steps and left it in the hands of employees to get the message rather than being sent the message,” says Johnetta Scales, HR training and development manager at the company.

The firm implemented a new system during the past year that pushes notifications out to affected employees via phone, e-mail and text. This year, the organization used the new system twice during severe snowstorms.

“We wanted to reach employees and let them know to stay off the roads and work from home, rather than having to wonder if the office is open, if anybody is there, if they should try to make it,” Scales says. “We were really happy with that.”

Like Cisco’s HR team, the HR staff at Gresham, Smith and Partners realized that one communication channel was not enough. The process needs to account for the reality that people have different preferred modes of communication.

“HR needs to be intimately connected with the best ways to get in touch with its employees,” Achille says. “Not everyone is sitting in front of a computer all day long.”

Of course, plans need to be in place long before a disaster hits. “We think of crises as acute, and that’s accurate. But it’s normal to have crises, so you should always be prepared for them,” Achille says.

Planning should involve determining not only what and how to communicate to employees but also who will serve as the designated crisis management group. “HR should be embedded in that team,” Thompson says.

Testing is an essential part of planning. HR departments should simulate crises to test communication procedures at least quarterly, Holtz recommends.

“It’s important to practice and drill and then evaluate those drills for continuous improvement,” Barton says.

The planning phase should take into account any emergencies that might potentially affect an organization—even the most extreme. Immediately after the Sept. 11 attacks, PetSmart’s employees asked the organization how they could donate money, blood and products to the relief efforts. “We didn’t know what to tell them,” says Barton, who worked at PetSmart at the time. Following that event, the HR team changed its process so that the company can instantly provide employees with a comprehensive list of ways they can help.

Just as important as planning before disaster strikes is the flip side—assessing communications afterward. This can help the organization improve the system the next time around. “There should always be a postmortem,” Achille says.

All internal crisis communication processes should support a dialogue that allows the business to communicate to employees and that lets HR hear from workers about their status and concerns.

“Good employee communication is two-way,” Holtz says.

While no one can control when a natural disaster will hit—or when a product will malfunction, or when a vicious rumor will go viral—HR professionals can control how they communicate in the wake of these events. Doing so will help employees get the information they need as quickly as possible without jeopardizing their trust in the company over the long term. That’s at least one crisis averted.

https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/1116/pages/communicating-with-employees-during-a-crisis.aspx




JANGAN SAMPAI HAL INI TERJADI DALAM PEMASARAN

  1. Salah merespon perubahan

Dunia sudah berubah, tetapi masih menikmati kenyamanan

  1. Salah melihat peluang

Peluang sudah terhampar, tetapi masih melihat peluang di depan mata yang memberikan kepuasan sesaat

  1. Salah promosi

Kurang waktu untuk mengingatkan masyarakat bahwa produk/jasa masih tersedia  di masyarakat

  1. Salah konsep pemasaran diri-sendiri

Terlalu percaya diri, sehingga mengganggap bahwa kesuksesan diri sendiri

  1. Salah membuat perencanaan pemasaran.

Merencanakan memasarkan produk tetapi yang digunakan konsep jasa

  1. Salah membuat rencana darurat

Perubahan ekonomi bisa terjadi setiap saat, tetapi tidak diantisipasi

  1. Salah memilih konsep pemasaran

Konsep western tetapi diterapkan pada pedesaan

  1. Salah menentukan tujuan

Memasarkan produk untuk sekali pakai untuk jangka pendek dengan bungkus yang kuat, harga mahal,                         penyimpanan tahan lama, dan ditawarkan kepada perorangan

  1. Salah mendeskripsikan bisnis-nya

Segmen yang dituju berbeda dengan keadaan usaha saat ini

  • Salah menganalisis pasar

Pasar yang dituju adalah pasar kalangan atas tetapi menggunakan cara sederhana

  • Salah menentukan barang dan jasa yang akan dipasarkan

Barang/jasa yang dipasarkan untuk kebutuhan grosir dipasarkan ke pengecer

  • Salah memilih tempat memasarkan

Tempat untuk kalangan atas dipilih di tempat di kalangan bawah

  • Salah memilih waktu

Memasarkan makan pagi tetapi baru buka jam 09.00 pagi

  • Salah memilih SDM

SDM pemasaran menggunakan jiwa non-pemasaran

  • Salah informasi

Informasi yang diperoleh adalah sampah sehingga menghasilkan kebijakan sampah (Garbage In Garbage                   Out)

  • Salah merencanakan keuangan

Memasarkan kepada perorangan menggunakan iklan di koran nasional dengan biaya yang cukup besar

  • Salah ikut-ikutan (latah)

Mengikuti perubahan tanpa melakukan pengkajian secara cepat dan tepat serta mangkus dan sangkil

 




Sistem Informasi Pemasaran

Jika ingin membukan usaha tetapi tidak tahu apa yang terjadi di lapangan langsung terjun maka banyak hal yang dapat merugikan terutama biaya dan tenaga.

Banyak informasi cara membuka usaha yang diawali dengan mindset, realistis, analisis jenis usaha, ide usaha, gagasan, ide, bisnis bidang apa, dan motivasi. Kenyataannya banyak individu yang tidak tahu bagaimana atau tidak menyadari bagaimana memulai suatu usaha.

Secara teoritis konsep untuk memulai suatu usaha perlu mengikuti bagan berikut ini (Kotler, 2010):

 

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Tahapan yang harus dilalui adalah

  1. Lihat catatan internal apakah sudah saatnya membuka usaha
  2. Pantau keadaan di lapangan yang dapat diperoleh dari tenaga penjual, media sosial, konsumen.
  3. Mintakan pendapat untuk masa yang akan datang kepada ahlinya.
  4. Lihat lingkungan makro yang terdiri dari demografi, ekonomi, social, budaya, keadaan alam, teknologi, politik, dan hukum
  5. Lakukan survei lapangan dengan menggunakan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif
  6. Setelah semua data diperoleh kemudian di analisis dengan berbagai alat analisis
  7. Analisis yang diperolah adalah data pasar yang lalu, saat ini, dan akan datang
  8. Semua rencana disusun untuk yang akan datang, bukan untuk saat ini.



HOW TO MARKET INTERNAL INFORMATION

HOW TO SAVE SINKING SHIP

 

  1. Don’t fail to realize that’s not people problem but management problem
  2. Transparency weekly meeting to find 360 degree feed back
  3. Monthly performance review
  4. Rationalized position
  5. Managers choose the best staff
  6. Make teamwork to top employee
  7. Make positive working environment make greater job satisfaction
  8. Be uncluttered
  9. Create customer experience (Make Reliability a Reality)
  10. Upgrade exterior signage made clearly visible hub of its neighborhood.

 

SIGN OF SINKING SHIP

  1.  Outdated  job standards and requirement
  2. Lack of employee training to serve customer
  3. Not adequate protection tools
  4. Not have emergency back up

http://blog.impraise.com/360-feedback/how-to-save-a-sinking-ship-lessons-from-yahoo-performance-review